Afshin Iranian warrior

Ḥaydar ibn Kāwūs, better known by his hereditary title al-Afshīn (or Afshin), was a prominent military general of Sogdian Iranian descent during the Abbasid Caliphate in the 9th century. Born around 800 CE in Oshrusana (a region in modern-day Tajikistan and Uzbekistan), he came from a princely family where "Afshin" was a traditional title for rulers. His background was rooted in Iranian culture, and while Oshrusana had nominally submitted to Abbasid authority earlier, Afshin himself converted to Islam (at least outwardly) to serve the caliphate. He rose to prominence under Caliph al-Mu'tasim (r. 833–842), playing key roles in major campaigns, including the suppression of the Khurramite rebellion led by Babak Khorramdin in Azerbaijan (capturing Babak in 837 after a prolonged siege) and a victory over Byzantine Emperor Theophilos at the Battle of Anzen in 838 during the Amorium campaign. For these achievements, he was rewarded with governorships over regions like Adharbayjan, Armenia, and even Sind.

Despite his successes, Afshin's rapid rise bred jealousy and suspicion, particularly from rivals like ʿAbd Allāh ibn Ṭāhir, the governor of Khorasan. His downfall began around 839–840 when he was accused of disloyalty, conspiracy, and secretly adhering to Zoroastrianism (the pre-Islamic religion of Persia) rather than being a true Muslim. He was alleged to have intrigued with Mazyar, the prince of Tabaristan, encouraging a rebellion to undermine Ibn Ṭāhir and potentially seize Khorasan for himself. Intercepted correspondence between Afshin and Mazyar, as well as claims that he had diverted wealth captured from Babak to his homeland, fueled the charges. Additionally, accusations of religious hypocrisy emerged, portraying him as a "disguised Zoroastrian" who maintained Persian traditions subversive to Islam.

The trial took place in Samarra (the Abbasid capital at the time) around 840–841, presided over by high officials like Aḥmad ibn Abī Dāwūd (a chief judge) and Iṣḥāq ibn Ibrāhīm. Witnesses included Mazyar (who had been captured and turned against Afshin), a Zoroastrian priest (mobed) who had converted to Islam, and others from Sogdia and Tabaristan. Key accusations during the proceedings included:

 1 - Possessing a lavishly adorned book on Persian manners and Zoroastrian content, which Afshin claimed was a family heirloom he kept for cultural reasons, not religious ones (comparing it to Muslims owning non-Islamic texts like Kalila wa Dimna).

2 - Eating meat from strangled animals (forbidden in Islam) and performing rituals like slaughtering a black goat every Wednesday, then passing between its halves before eating it.

3 - Supporting Zoroastrian communities in Oshrusana by punishing Muslims who destroyed idols or converted shrines into mosques, violating local religious tolerances.

4 - Using blasphemous titles in correspondence, such as addressing himself as a "high god" or "lord of lords," which prosecutors likened to pharaonic claims of divinity.

5 - Conspiring via letters to promote the "splendid religion" (interpreted as Zoroastrianism) with figures like Babak and Mazyar.

A pivotal moment was the testimony from the mobed, who accused Afshin of hating certain Islamic practices (like eating olive oil or riding camels) while adopting others superficially—but crucially, remaining uncircumcised. Circumcision (khitan) was a key Islamic sunnah (recommended practice), and its absence was seen as damning evidence of insincere conversion, especially for post-Islamic converts from Persia, where the practice was unknown pre-Islam. The mobed claimed Afshin confided he avoided it to preserve his Zoroastrian identity. This allegation was used to portray him as a hypocrite (munafiq) who feigned Islam for power. Afshin defended this by challenging the mobed's credibility, noting the witness had betrayed confidences and wasn't reliable, but he didn't directly refute the physical claim in the records—possibly due to cultural or personal reasons, though some accounts suggest he offered to undergo circumcision to prove his sincerity.

Afshin's broader defenses emphasized his loyalty: he highlighted his military service to the caliphate, argued that pre-Islamic customs (like titles) were retained to maintain control over his people before full Islamization, and affirmed his faith by reciting the shahada ("There is no God but God"). He also accused witnesses like the mobed and Mazyar of lying for personal gain or under duress.

Despite these efforts, the trial ended in conviction for apostasy, disloyalty, and conspiracy. Al-Mu'tasim, once his patron, ordered a special prison ("The Pearl," shaped like a minaret) built for him. Afshin spent about nine months there before dying in May–June 841, likely from starvation or execution. Accounts vary on the exact method: some say he was starved to death, while others describe a brutal execution involving mutilation (cutting off his genitals first, then his head). His body was crucified publicly alongside those of Babak and Mazyar as a warning, and his remains were later cremated and thrown into the Tigris River. After his death, a search of his home uncovered more incriminating items, like the Zoroastrian book. Oshrusana was fully Islamized following his fall, erasing much of its pre-Islamic heritage.

This episode, drawn from sources like al-Ṭabarī's History (Volume III, p. 1313) and Gardīzī, highlights the Abbasid era's tensions between Iranian elites and Arab-Islamic dominance, where cultural holdovers like uncircumcision could be weaponized in political trials. Afshin's story is often seen as a cautionary tale of assimilation challenges for Persian converts.